Philadelphia –

The end of July marked a significant milestone at the Constitutional Convention. Having considered and debated multiple proposals and counter proposals on the structure of a new government, the delegates were ready to compose a written version of the resolutions they had agreed upon.  A “Committee of Detail” – composed of John Rutledge of South Carolina, Edmund Randolph of Virginia, Nathaniel Gorham of Massachusetts, Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, and James Wilson of Pennsylvania – was charged with compiling the draft.

The Convention adjourned from July 26^th to August 6^th to allow the Committee to prepare a rough draft of a constitution. When the Convention re-convened, the Committed of Detail presented its report, made up of twenty-three articles, some highly detailed. George Washington and Convention Secretary William Jackson made edits on a single copy of the report from August 6^th to September 3rd, officially recording the Convention’s revisions.

August 7^th began on an agreeable note as the delegates quickly resolved to accept the preamble and Articles I and II, affirming the new government would be called the Unites States of America and consist of Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches.

Nevertheless, this agreement masked the critical issue that the Convention had debated throughout – was this to be a union of states or of people? The Committee of Detail’s constitution began, “We the people of the States (emphasis added) of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina, South-Carolina, and Georgia, do ordain, declare, and establish the following Constitution for the Government of Ourselves and our Posterity.” The Convention would not end with that language in the preamble.

Similar to the Constitution we know, the Committee of Detail report started with the structure and powers of the legislative branch. Some of the key questions included: Who can elect representatives? How many representatives will there be? What will be their qualifications?

Delegates debated whether to allow non-land owners to the right to vote for House members, or reserve the franchise to property owners. Gouverneur Morris wanted to restrict voting to those with property, considering them more educated and better able to choose wise leaders. “The ignorant and dependant,” Morris stated, “can be… little trusted with the public interest.” Colonel Mason countered arguments of this kind, saying all citizens should have equal voting rights and privileges.  Doctor Franklin sided with Colonel Mason believing that restricting the right to vote to land owners would cause contention among the people. In the end Morris’ proposal to restrict the franchise to property owners was defeated (7-1-1)

It was agreed that members of the House would represent no more than 40,000 constituents. This would equate to 56 Members of the House, including a member from Delaware, which did not yet have 40,000 residents. Delegates decided that House members must have been citizens for at least 7 years, revised up from 3 years, to insure they possessed adequate local knowledge.

Regarding the Senate, delegates voted that each state would have two Senators and each Senator would have one vote in drafting legislation. Senators would be required to be at least 30 years of age. Senators would be required to be residents for at least 9 years. Though Mr. Pickering proposed a property qualification for Senate eligibility of at least $100,000, delegates rejected this proposal.

Philadelphia -

As the convention entered its fifth week, many of its delegates must have had a growing frustration that little progress had been made. The Virginia Plan had been presented, debated, and amended… and in response, William Patterson and Alexander Hamilton each presented competing plans, drawn on entirely different principles. With those competing plans rejected, the debate on June 20 brought delegates back to the very issue that had been deferred at the start of the convention – the issue of representation in the new government.

The issue of whether the delegates were to alter the Articles of Confederation, or to establish a new national government, had been deferred – but it could not be deferred forever. Delegates Oliver Ellsworth and Nathanial Gorham (from Connecticut and Massachusetts, respectively) did their part to defer the issue, moving to alter the first resolution of the amended Virginia Plan, which called for a “national government,” to call instead for a more general “Government of the United States”. The second resolution of the amended Virginia Plan – which called for a national legislature consisting of two branches – was more contentious. John Lansing (NY) argued that a single legislature was all that was needed in a confederation. He concluded, bluntly, “the true question here was, whether the Convention would adhere to or depart from the foundation of the present Confederacy.”

Lansing then launched into a full-scale attack of the Virginia Plan. He charged that the Convention was exceeding its authority and overlooking the public will in trying to establish a national government in place of the Confederation. He believed that the large states were out to take advantage of smaller states. He thought the national veto against state laws was impractical. He doubted it was possible to establish any general government that would be fair to all. He thought the system was too new and complicated. He believed a government on this plan would not last, and feared the states would be absorbed by the national government.

Lansing’s complaint raised a whole range of responses, with some – notably the fiery Luther Martin, from Maryland – joining Lansing in a vigorous defense of the sovereignty of states. On the other side were Madison and James Wilson, who insisted that the state governments were far more likely to intrude on the national government’s powers than the other way around, and that the only way to defend the national government’s powers against the states was to create a government that represented the people directly, rather than representing the states alone. Roger Sherman and William Johnson (CT) were open to a compromise, willing to accept a bicameral legislature, with one branch representing the people, the other representing the states.

Benjamin Franklin

This compromise position won the day, but there would be other occasions for conflict over the details of this national legislature during the last week of June. Before the week was over, on Thursday, June 28, the weary Dr. Franklin requested that remarks he had written be read to the delegates. He complained about the “small progress we have made after four or five weeks,” and lamented that the delegates “seem to feel our own want of political wisdom.” Drawing from his experience with the Second Continental Congress on the brink of war with Great Britain, Franklin recalled that each day of that assembly’s meetings began with a prayer for divine protection. He wondered “how has it happened…, that we have not hitherto once thought of humbly applying to the Father of lights to illuminate our understandings?” Even on this simple request from the revered Dr. Franklin, however, there was dispute. Hamilton did not want to signal to the public that there was disagreement amongst the delegates. Hugh Williamson from North Carolina observed that the Convention simply did not have the funds to bring in a clergyman. Debate continued until, Madison reports, “After several unsuccessful attempts for silently postponing the matter by adjourning, the adjournment was at length carried, without any vote on the motion.” Delegates agreed to disagree on this, and other matters, and retreated to their lodgings for the evening.

Get Ready for the 4th of July! Order pocket Constitutions for your family, friends, co-workers and neighbors today and save 20%! Coupon code BP4TH ends on the 29th – so order today!

For more detailed information on the Constitutional Convention, please visit Prof. Gordon Lloyd’s web companion to the Philadelphia Convention.

“Here Rests In Honored Glory An American Soldier Known But To God”

As Hurricane Isabelle approached Washington, D.C. in September of 2003 the exodus of the city’s work force was in full gear. Supplies were swept from store shelves and windows were boarded up.

But on the hillside overlooking the Capitol a different story was playing out. At Arlington Cemetery the guards at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier were neither fleeing the storm nor leaving their posts. As remnants of the hurricane blew through Washington, D.C. they continued marching their 21 step vigil through the tumult, day and night, guard after guard, shift after shift, pelting rain and wind driven projectiles notwithstanding. When the skies finally cleared 24 large trees had been downed by Isabel throughout the cemetery, but the tomb guards were still at their posts in honor of all the unknown men and women who had died in the service of our country.

Honoring the men and women who have paid the ultimate price by giving their lives to defend the Constitution has been a long tradition in our nation. Memorial Day, originally called Decoration Day when Civil War soldier’s graves were decorated to honor them, is celebrated as a national holiday the last Monday in May each year for this occasion. Taking a few moments to ponder the sacrifices these heroes have made to secure our freedom is a worthy endeavor.

Informing young people, and all citizens, about the importance of honoring those who have died for America is a tradition that must be taught. The National World War II Museum of New Orleans website lists Memorial Day activities you, your students, or your family might consider to celebrate this year. A few of their suggestions are to:

• Honor a veteran on Your Facebook page

• Organize a school or family or community observance

• Place a flag on a Veteran’s grave

• Conduct an oral history interview with a veteran you know

• Write a letter to the newspaper (or a blog) to commemorate this special occasion

In this regard, the soldiers of the United States Army Third Infantry Regiment guarding the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier are a wonderful example of respect that should be respected. Their unbroken chain of dedication guarding the tomb around the clock stretches back 74 years. They actually live beneath the tomb, their barracks in close proximity of those whom they guard and, when on duty, they “walk the mat” with full exposure to the elements in all weather conditions.

The tomb holds the bodies of a three unknown American soldiers; one from World War I, one form World War II and one form the Korean War. To the guards watching over them, they represent all American unknown military personnel who have been lost at war. To honor them all, the tomb guards adhere to some of the military’s highest codes of conduct, toughest etiquette and uniform requirements, and most rigorous sentinel training. The precise 21 step pattern they march comports with the traditional honor guard 21 gun salute. Everything is done with excellence in respect for their comrades and what they, and their sacrifice, represent to the American republic.

On Memorial Day there will be solemn ceremonies and vibrant celebrations in cities across America honoring the men and women who have died serving the nation. If Memorial Day has simply been another day to you, I encourage you to start a new tradition in your family and attend one.

Washington, D.C. will host the annual Memorial Day Parade featuring veterans from all fifty states, the Memorial Day Concert on the Capitol grounds with the National Symphony, and the annual GI Film Festival. Over 500,000 thousand motorcycles will patrol the city all weekend in the annual Rolling Thunder Motorcycle rally for POWs. At Arlington cemetery military personnel will plant 250,000 small American flags on the graves of their comrades buried there.

And on the top of the hill overlooking Washington, D.C. the guards at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier will also be honoring America’s heroes on Memorial Day, marching their 21 step vigil, watching over the tomb around the clock. And when all the other wonderful commemorative celebrations have ended, they will still be there to us remind us that those who have given their lives for this nation deserve a Memorial Day every day.

What are you doing to remember our freedoms?

**Photos by Annabelle Ombac**

“The National Council for the Social Studies believes the core mission of social studies education is to help students become…effective citizens.”

While growing up in Romania during the rule of the dictator Ceausescuc, my friend, Maria, gathered secretly with her family at the risk of imprisonment to listen to the outlawed Voice of America broadcasts. Hearing about the freedoms guaranteed to citizens in what sounded like a mystical place called the United States, Maria vowed she would one day go there. She arrived as a young adult and immediately began a program to study for the goal she had so long dreamed about, American citizenship.

Sadly, most Americans approach the topic of citizenship quite differently. Having been born citizens, we often take it for granted.

Inspiring young people to think about, and practice, engaged citizenship is crucial to America’s future. The Founders believed citizenship education was critical even at the country’s beginning. George Washington said, “A primary object…should be the education of our youth in the science of government…those who are the guardians of the future liberties of our county.”

The National Council for the Social Studies goes so far as to say; “For democracy to survive… we must educate our students to understand, respect, and uphold the values enshrined in our founding documents. Our students should leave school with a clear sense of their rights and responsibilities as citizens.”

Civic educators have a noble core mission in this regard! Indeed, the social studies classroom is where students get most of their citizenship education. Our Founders left us an invaluable inheritance; citizenship in a free society. We must educated young people not to be ambivalent about such a gift. We must give them the knowledge and, just as importantly, a vision to value and apply their rights and responsibilities as citizens!

Listed below are the traits of effective citizenship established by the National Council for the Social Studies. How deep does your students’ learning go on these important attributes?

• Has knowledge of our nation’s Founding documents, civic institutions, and political processes.
• Embraces core democratic values and strives to live by them.
• Accepts responsibility for the well-being of oneself, one’s family, and the community.
• Has knowledge of the people, history, and traditions that have shaped our local communities, our nation, and the world.
• Is aware of issues and events that have an impact on people at local, state, national, and global levels.
• Seeks information from varied sources and perspectives to develop informed opinions and creative solutions.
• Has the ability to collaborate effectively as a member of a group.
• Actively participates in civic and community life.

When my friend Maria passed her citizenship exam she took the oath of allegiance that all immigrants take to become United States citizens. Read the oath out loud and have your students reflect on their own right and responsibilities as Americans. They will shortly become the “guardians of the future liberties of our country.” Civic educators and social studies teachers must make sure they are ready. It is our noble core mission!

Oath of United States Citizenship

“I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state or sovereignty, of whom or which I have heretofore been a subject or citizen; that I will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law; and that I take this obligation freely without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; so help me God.”

“I hope that kids understand that in this country, everything that we do in everyday life is touched upon by the Constitution of the United States,”

There is a Real National Treasure!

When I tell student there really is a national treasure their curiosity is aroused. They immediately think of the movie; National Treasure. When actor Nicholas Cage discovers a treasure of immeasurable value hidden by America’s Founders as security for the new nation it’s easy to forget the movie is fictitious; it’s hard not to feel jubilant when his kerosene laden torch reveals the treasures of civilization in their underground hiding place!

Just like in the movie, the real national treasure it is the work of America’s Founders. Just like in the movie, it was put in place for the security of the new nation. And just like in the movie, its value is immeasurable, so much so that tens of thousands of American have died defending it.

Of course I am talking about the United States Constitution.

The Constitution ushered in a theretofore untried and noble experiment; the creation and organization of a free society. It created a republic with strong but limited government organized to provide Americans the greatest possible freedom, the greatest possible individual liberty, and the greatest possible opportunity to pursue happiness. As the late author and professor Allan Bloom put it, “America tells one story: the unbroken, ineluctable progress of freedom and equality.”

But in his book, The Closing of the American Mind, professor  Bloom also points out the heroism of the American Founding and the impact of the Constitution have been viewed with cynicism in recent decades with both international and American educators focusing on the nation’s short comings and failings. As a college professor his observation was that high school students “… arrive at the university ignorant and cynical about our political heritage, lacking the wherewithal to be either inspired by it or seriously critical of it.” One result is citizens with perspectives like that of the Washington Post’s Ezra Kline, whose recent national television interview drew attention when he described the Constitution as old, confusing and arbitrary.

Contrast him to the late Senator Robert Byrd who believed that an understating of the Constitution by all citizens was so vitally important that he helped establish that every student, in every public school, from first grade through college have a lesson on the Constitution each year on Constitution Day!  He stood on the Senate floor and said “I love the Constitution!” He believed the passing on of a Constitutional culture to the next generation was vital to the health of the American Republic! He believed the Constitution was a national treasure.

What do your students think? Do they see the Constitution as an old confusing, arbitrary document or as a national treasure?

Notwithstanding their words, American critics of the Constitution continue to enjoy the liberty it gives them to freely speak against it and many international critics can be comforted that their own government’s constitutions have incorporated at least some of the principles of the United States Constitution. When it comes to the bottom line, people everywhere want to be free!

“THESE are the times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman.”
From The American Crisis by Thomas Paine and quoted by George Washington to his troops before crossing the Delaware.

A Historic American Christmas

At midnight on the Christmas of 1776, George Washington and the Continental Army were weathering pelting snow and sleet as they as they ferried across the Delaware River to battle the Hessians in Trenton, New Jersey. You are probably familiar with Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze’s famous painting of the occasion. His 21 foot long 12 foot tall rendering has mesmerized young and old alike for generations and is still the most popular exhibit at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. Even book-sized replicas convey the spirit of indomitable determination with which George Washington faced crisis after crisis during the American Revolution.

More intriguing than the painting is the story of what actually happened that night. Washington’s surprise defeat of the British ally Hessians has become the stuff of lore and legend. Many believe his unlikely victory changed history saving what was left of the dispirited Colonial Army from disbanding and the revolution from collapsing. Washington’s first biographer, David Ramsay wrote of the event; “The drooping spirits of the Americans were revived. The gloomy apprehensions which had lately prevailed, of their being engaged in a hopeless cause, yielded to a confidence in their General and their army, and in the ultimate success of their struggles for liberty and independence.”

No one knows for sure if the American Revolution would have failed if not for George Washington’s victory at Trenton that night. His advocates make the case that it would have. What do you think?

The official Washington Crossing Historic Park website provides a detailed account of the crossing and battle. The site also links to the Yale-New Haven Teacher’s Institute providing a plethora of junior high and high school topic related lesson plan ideas. Here is a quick summary of the crossing events from the site and some interesting anecdotes with which you may not be familiar.

• Having been repeatedly defeated by the British, suffered numerous desertions, and low on food and clothing, the dispirited Continental Army had retreated to Pennsylvania for the winter.

• Apparently having little faith in the army’s prospects, the Continental Congress had fled Philadelphia to Baltimore.

• To turn the tide, Washington had secretly planed to cross the Delaware River to attack the Hessian post in Trenton, New Jersey on Christmas Day. Underscoring the severity of their plight, he designated the password for the battle, “Victory or Death.”

• Patriot Thomas Paine was among those who had retreated to Pennsylvania with the army during which time he penned his first chapter of The American Crisis. Washington reportedly read from the manuscript to inspire the troops before the crossing.

• Future President James Monroe participated as a young 18-year-old lieutenant, was wounded in the battle, and carried an embedded musket ball in his shoulder the rest on his life. Little did he know that he would one day shape America’s foreign policy via the Monroe Doctrine and impact the entire hemisphere for generations.

• Another young soldier, 21 year old Alexander Hamilton, also crossed the Delaware that night, checking himself out of the camp hospital to make the journey. Little did he know he would soon champion the Constitution that would establish a new nation or that his face would grace that nation’s ten dollar bill 235 years later.

• It took twelve hours, from 4:30 p.m. to 4:30 a.m., for 2,400 soldiers and 50-75 horses to ferry across the river using flat bottomed Durham boats. The severe weather, which Washington called “vicious,” and ice packed river almost thwarted them.

• Over a half of Washington’s army under the command of officers Cadwalader and Ewing were unable to make the crossing because of the bad weather, disrupting the attack plan. Washington decided to proceed to the battle without them.

• Upon landing in New Jersey the army marched 9 exhausting miles through the storm, and engaged the Hessians in battle, taking them by surprise. About 25 Hessians were killed, including their commander, and another 600 fled. Washington captured 900 prisoners! And not a single colonial soldier lost his life in the conflict.

• Immediately after the battle, the army retraced the 9 mile march to their boats with prisoners in tow and safely completed the long treacherous return crossing, enlisting the Hessians to help break the river ice.

• Years later, defeated British General Cornwallis himself credited the Delaware campaign as Washington’s pivotal achievement.

At midnight on Christmas of 2010 I will be celebrating with my family at midnight Mass, being grateful for many blessings and for all that Christmas represents. Being the anniversary of the crossing I will also be reminded of the Christmas 235 years ago when General Washington forged the Delaware and won a great victory that paved the way for this remarkable country. And I hope from now on, when seeing George Washington standing in the boat in Leutze’s famous painting, you too will recount the details of what happened on that historic American Christmas.”

From the National Council for Social Studies Charter on Civic Virtues

Benjamin Franklin image from the Franklin Institute

It was the moment 16-year old Benjamin Franklin had been waiting for. Watching from his hiding place as the last workers locked up the newspaper building he squeezed his precious essay one last time and secretly slipped it under the editor’s door. Since his mentors had little interest in his opinions because of his young age, he had written his manuscript under the fictitious identity of a middle-aged widow he had named Silence Dogood. He chose the name to express his appreciation for civic virtue: his desire to do good. Little did he know it would be the first of fourteen letters he would anonymously pen as Silence Dogood, and the first of many manuscripts he would write on virtue throughout his life. He just wanted to engage in the discussions about the issues of his time. He wanted to express his patriotism. He wanted to share his voice.

Since I first read about Benjamin Franklin’s imaginative deception I have thought of it an important lesson for those of us working as civic educators. The fact that his aspirations and his potential were overlooked by his mentors is instructive. Today’s teenagers are not unlike him.  Many have a strong desire to engage in discussions about the issues and values of our time; to express their patriotism; to share their voices. We want to be sure to recognize these qualities in young people, validate them, and provide constructive direction for them. Indeed, it is our civic duty to do so!

In both the Greek and Roman societies it was the responsibility of adults to provide moral education and instill an appreciation of virtues and the importance of a virtuous culture to young people. America’s Founders went further making it clear that the nation’s very existence was dependent on a virtuous people.  James Madison said, “To suppose that any form of government will secure liberty or happiness without any virtue in the people is a chimerical idea.”  In this regard the National Council for Social Studies Charter on Civic Virtues states that, “The fostering of civic virtue is a critical task for our nation’s schools.”

One way teachers can help students connect with the virtues of their American heritage is to take a lesson from Benjamin Franklin: have them write about them. The Bill of Rights Institute’s Being an American Essay Contest is the perfect template for such an approach. The contest asks students to trace a civic value through the American story. They are asked to:

• Identify a civic value they think is most essential to being an American
• Write about a Founding document that reflects this value
• Describe how a figure from American history embodies this value
• Give examples how they personally have or will put this value into practice

The contest boasts a generous prize package offering nine regional first place awards of $5,000 each along with a three-day educational trip to Washington, D.C. Since teachers have such an important role in training young people about American’s civic virtues, and because they are doing so via the contest, they are awarded matching prizes if their students win.

More important than the prizes, the assignment enables students to reflect on the importance of values we esteem as Americans, and then personalizes their work by asking them to apply their chosen value to their own lives. I ask students to write their essays so they are proud of them and put them on their wall to inspire them. Over the four year history of the contest, 100,000 students have written essays reflecting the importance of virtues as expressed in our Founding documents and in the lives of our heroes.  It provides students a voice and a mechanism to connect with and process important American ideals.

Young people are looking to adults for direction and guidance in life. They are looking for values they feel are worthy of them.  Social studies teachers are in a unique position to expose students to the importance of civic virtues in this regard. Champion the teaching of civic virtues in your classroom. Take a lesson from sixteen your old Benjamin Franklin. Recognize your student’s potential to be virtuous citizens and both teach and inspire them to DO GOOD!